Chapter+3

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= Stages of Learning =
 * == Acquisition Stage: during this stage the instructional goal focuses on helping the student perform the skill accurately (examples: teaching students to model the right way to do a story problem) ==
 * == Proficiency Stage: the aim is for the student to perform the task both accurately and quickly (examples: giving the student a math worksheet and see how many they can do in ten minutes) ==
 * == Maintenance Stage: the goal of instruction here is to maintain the high level of performance (examples: leaving a math concept for a little bit and reintroducing it into the lesson) ==
 * == Generalization Stage: the students demonstrates proficiently in the skill in different settings and with different people (examples: students going home and working on their homework) ==
 * == Adaption Stage: the student applies a previously learned skill in a new area of application without direct instruction or guidance (examples: students balancing their checkbook) ==

= Individually Referenced Data Systems =
 * == Direct measurement: focuses on relevant classroom behavior (example: oral reading rate) ==
 * == Repeated measurement: requires that a behavior be counted and recorded over a period of time (example: marking every time the student does something that is not right, it will help the assessing the student) ==
 * == Graphing data: the data is in a visual display for the teacher to look at (line graph of the student’s behavior and compare it later) ==
 * == Long-range goal performance monitoring: performance monitoring charts display progress towards a long-range instructional goal (example: the students graphs are done throughout the semester and see if the behavior is getting better or worse) ==
 * == Short-range goal performance monitoring: mastery monitoring chart is used to monitor progress on successive short-term goals (example: look at the students behavior and see if it changes over a class period or two) ==
 * == Data analysis and instructional decisions: instructional aims or goals provide the student and teacher with a framework to analyze data and evaluate student progress (example: when a student has mastered the problem behavior they are having) ==

= Grading Alternatives =
 * = Individualized educational program grading approach: determines grades on the basis of a student’s progress on goals and objectives specified on the student’s individualized educational program, example – see how the student is coming on their goals and receiving a goal for it =
 * = Pass/fail systems: establishes criteria for passing or failing, example – teach tells the student what they need to do to pass and if they do not do them they do not pass =
 * = Mastery level/criterion systems: mastering a criteria, example – assess, teach, and assess to see what they learned =
 * = Point systems: points are assigned to various activities, example – GPA =
 * = Contract grading: teacher and student sign a contract that specifies the work to be completed, how the grade is determined, and the timeline for completion, example – signing a contract when students have a science lab =
 * = Multiple grading: teacher grades the student in several areas including ability, effort, and achievement, example – teacher grading the student on a project they did based on the ability, effort, and achievement of the goal =
 * = Shared grading: when two or more teachers work together to teach a student they collaborate to assign a grade, example – special education teacher and the general education teacher work together to grade the student =
 * = Student self-comparison: teacher and students meet to determine appropriate instructional goals within the curriculum, example – teacher and students work together to create a rubric on a project =
 * = Level grading: grading is individualized by using a subscript to note the level of difficulty on which the students’ grades are based, example – giving the student a letter grade and then dividing up the numbers so 1 is the hardest and 3 the weakest, student can get a B1 meaning B for a grade but it was a higher B =
 * = Descriptive grading: teachers write descriptive comments regarding each student’s performance, attitude, effort, and learning preferences, example – teachers grading a student profolio =


 * === Test Modifications === || === Percentage of use by Teachers === ||
 * ==== 1. Provide ample space to respond to items on test protocol. ==== || ==== 96.9 ==== ||
 * ==== 2. Space items so as not to interfere with one another. ==== || ==== 95.3 ==== ||
 * ==== 3. Prepare tests that are typewritten rather than handwritten. ==== || ==== 90.6 ==== ||
 * ==== 4. Allocate more time to complete the test. ==== || ==== 90.6 ==== ||
 * ==== 5. Place a blank beside each item on matching test questions rather than have students draw lines. ==== || ==== 90.6 ==== ||
 * ==== 6. Monitor students' performance during the test. ==== || ==== 82.8 ==== ||
 * ==== 7. Limit the number of choices to a maximum of four on multiple-choice test questions. ==== || ==== 81.3 ==== ||
 * ==== 8. Present items in a predictable hierarchical sequence. ==== || ==== 79.7 ==== ||
 * ==== 9. Give shorter, more frequent tests rather than fewer, more comprehensive tests. ==== || ==== 79.7 ==== ||
 * ==== 10. Read directions and test items to students. ==== || ==== 79.7 ==== ||
 * ==== 11. Use cues to enhance understanding of the major elements and directions. ==== || ==== 76.6 ==== ||
 * ==== 12. Require only brief response or outline form on essay test questions. ==== || ==== 74.4 ==== ||
 * ==== 13. Define unfamiliar or abstract words. ==== || ==== 71.9 ==== ||
 * ==== 14. Limit the number of matching items to ten. ==== || ==== 71.9 ==== ||
 * ==== 15. Provide a pool of responses for fill-in-the-blank test questions. ==== || ==== 70.3 ==== ||
 * ==== 16. Change the setting in which the student takes the test. ==== || ==== 62.5 ==== ||
 * ==== 17. Allow students to choose the number of questions they must answer. ==== || ==== 62.5 ==== ||
 * ==== 18. Avoid using never, not, sometimes, or always in true-false test questions. ==== || ==== 60.9 ==== ||
 * ==== 19. Adjust the reading level of the test to meet the students' needs. ==== || ==== 59.4 ==== ||
 * ==== 20. Decrease the number of test items. ==== || ==== 57.8 ==== ||
 * ==== 21. Place answers vertically under multiple-choice test questions. ==== || ==== 57.8 ==== ||
 * ==== 22. Place an equal number of choices in both columns on matching test questions. ==== || ==== 57.8 ==== ||
 * ==== 23. Avoid ambiguous choices such as all of the above or none of the above on multiple-choice test questions. ==== || ==== 54.7 ==== ||
 * ==== 24. Employ subsections that divide open-ended essay test questions. ==== || ==== 54.7 ==== ||
 * ==== 25. Allow students to dictate their responses. ==== || ==== 50.0 ==== ||


 * Information Found From: Teaching Students with Learning Problems, 8th Edition, Cecil D. Mercer; Ann R. Mercer; Paige C. Pullen (2011) **